The Company Novartis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Company Novartis - Essay Example Therefore, Novartis is famous for the Central Nervous System Segment. Instead of concentrating the attention mostly on medicines, which can be sold in large markets, Novartis’ experts are analyzing rare illnesses with the purpose of using the findings also for common diseases. For instance, Novartis created medicine to treat auto-inflammatory disorder that can be met with patients very seldom, however it was proved that this medicine can be also successfully applied to treat a very widespread form of arthritis. So, the company’s method is oriented on satisfying the needs of many patients with different diseases at once. International factor The Central Nervous System Segment of the Company is popular in 140 countries. For a good brand development, it is not enough to make an innovation but also to use the world-accepted resources, make trials on the global level. The Central Nervous System Segment of Novartis gains a new experience through successful cooperation with in ternational partners who also have a strong desire to make innovations and investigations of new drugs invented to treat patients all over the world (Novartis Global at www.novartis.com). The company Novartis also created a special Biocamp – a place where students and young scientists from all the countries of the world can meet and share their knowledge. Such meetings are very useful for innovative developments in this sector in particular (Home 46). Political factors Every international business presupposes systematic evaluation of different risks connected with political environment of different countries. Each country has its own political system, its own rules and its own strategy. Politics and economics are closely connected and the uncertain reforms affect the activity of the international companies much. Political environment changes always influence the company’s activity, so Novartis needs to adjust to these changes and make good forecasts to avoid difficulti es and losses (Novartis Global at www.novartis.com). In the face of global political changes, the Central Nervous System Segment of Novartis is focused on different relevant issues and aspects of their current activities, which can often exceed the limits of their direct activities. Social factors The main goal of Central Nervous System Segment of is to develop medical innovations for a total eradication of nervous diseases among people all over the world. Thus, the activity of the organization is very important for the society. Novartis create new healthcare products aiming at finding the solutions to the unsolved issues in modern medicine. The main goal is to gain the trust of the patients and consumers. Thus business should be reliable and principled. Joseph Jimenez, Chief Executive Officer, Novartis said: â€Å"We apply our expertise in science and innovation to society’s biggest health challenges. We take our role in improving health seriously and focus on areas where w e can lead and make a significant impact.† The company understands that people want it to find solutions to the most difficult problems in modern medicine. To improve this segment and all other aspects of their activities, people should take into account the needs for the company satisfies the needs of more the 1 billion people every year but the world has 7 billion and all of them need medicines (Novartis Globa

Animism and Personification Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Animism and Personification - Term Paper Example These religions are given the term primal because of the animistic belief embodied in it (Super and Turley, p.18). Primal religions have a strong belief in animism and personification. Primal religions believe in the connection of all existence, whether it be humans, animals or even nature. In fact, nature is on the focal points of primal religion. Each being, each place, each object was reasoned to have a spirit, which is called anima. In such a manner, everything has a purpose, a reason for its existence. This is closely related to how people have lived centuries ago, in the time where hunting and gathering were the primary means of living. In primal religions, the distinction between good and bad is associated with misfortune and fortune. Long ago, people do not have the technology and knowledge that we have today that can explain illness, death and suffering. Although primal religions believe in a greater or supreme being, it also brings forth the belief in entities, deities and spirits that dwell among people and nature who can and may interfere with people’s lives when they desire to or when they are disturbed. With limited knowledge and the belief in animism and personification, the people do not have an explanation to the misfortunes they are experiencing except to use their primal religion as a way to understand their lives. With this, primal religion do not relate good and bad to natural or unnatural rather they relate good and bad to how they view their relation with the spirits and deities around them through their relation with other people and with nature. Nature has a very big impact in the way people lived. By taking care of their environment and essentially nature, people believed that they will be blessed by being given back plants, trees, fruits, crops and animals that will serve as their food, shelter and clothing. Good and bad became a distinction between taking care of the things around them versus destroying their environment. When something bad happens, such as a plague, people generally believe that they are being punished because they disturbed the balance or they believe that there was something they have done that offended the spirits, deities and other beings. With this, they try to turn things around through offerings and sacrifices, which are quite different from how we do it today. Another perspective of good and bad in the primal religion is the distinction between suffering and good fortune. When a person experiences suffering, it is related to something bad or evil. And when people, with this limited knowledge, no modern technology and with a belief in animism, look for a reason behind this suffering, they associate it with something bad or evil, which is related to the idea of the unknown. Anything that is unknown to them that causes misfortune, suffering or death is equated to bad or evil. But not all unknown is related to evil and not all known is related to good. The relation is based on their experience. For example, when there is an eclipse and something bad happens to them, like crops dying, they automatically associate this with something evil. When there is a shooting star, or in our knowledge now a meteor shower, and something good happens after it like animals migrating to their area, they automatically think that the meteor showers are something good. This association comes from the primal belief that all things are interrelated or intertwined. And this is because of the communitarian way the people of those ages lived (Sharma, p.4). The primal belief has another important characteristic, and that is the belief that people, animals and other things are held together by an ultimate nature and

Cover Note Essay Example for Free

Cover Note Essay The Relation of Science and Religion is a transcript of a talk given by Dr. Feynman at the Caltech YMCA Lunch Forum on May 2, 1956. In this age of specialization men who thoroughly know one field are often incompetent to discuss another. The great problems of the relations between one and another aspect of human activity have for this reason been discussed less and less in public. When we look at the past great debates on these subjects we feel jealous of those times, for we should have liked the excitement of such argument. The old problems, such as the relation of science and religion, are still with us, and I believe present as difficult dilemmas as ever, but they are not often publicly discussed because of the limitations of specialization. But I have been interested in this problem for a long time and would like to discuss it. In view of my very evident lack of knowledge and understanding of religion (a lack which will grow more apparent as we proceed), I will organize the discussion in this way: I will suppose that not one man but a group of men are discussing the problem, that the group consists of specialists in many fields – the various sciences, the various religions and so on – and that we are going to discuss the problem from various sides, like a panel. Each is to give his point of view, which may be molded and modified by the later discussion. Further, I imagine that someone has been chosen by lot to be the first to present his views, and I am he so chosen. I would start by presenting the panel with a problem: A young man, brought up in a religious family, studies a science, and as a result he comes to doubt – and perhaps later to disbelieve in – his fathers God. Now, this is not an isolated example; it happens time and time again. Although I have no statistics on this, I believe that many scientists – in fact, I actually believe that more than half of the scientists – really disbelieve in their fathers God; that is, they dont believe in a God in a conventional sense. Now, since the belief in a God is a central feature of religion, this problem that I have selected points up most strongly the problem of the relation of science and religion. Why does this young man come to disbelieve? The first answer we might hear is very simple: You see, he is taught by scientists, and (as I have just pointed out) they are all atheists at heart, so the evil is spread from one to another. But if you can entertain this view, I think you know less of science than I know of religion. Another answer may be that a little knowledge is dangerous; this young man has learned a little bit and thinks he knows it all, but soon he will grow out of this sophomoric sophistication and come to realize that the world is more complicated, and he will begin again to understand that there must be a God. I dont think it is necessary that he come out of it. There are many scientists – men who hope to call themselves mature – who still dont believe in God. In fact, as I would like to explain later, the answer is not that the young man thinks he knows it all – it is the exact opposite. A third answer you might get is that this young man really doesnt understand science correctly. I do not believe that science can disprove the existence of God; I think that is impossible. And if it is impossible, is not a belief in science and in a God – an ordinary God of religion — a consistent possibility? Yes, it is consistent. Despite the fact that I said that more than half of the scientists dont believe in God, many scientists do believe in both science and God, in a perfectly consistent way. But this consistency, although possible, is not easy to attain, and I would like to try to discuss two things: Why it is not easy to attain, and whether it is worth attempting to attain it. When I say believe in God, of course, it is always a puzzle – what is God? What I mean is the kind of personal God, characteristic of the western religions, to whom you pray and who has something to do with creating the universe and guiding you in morals. For the student, when he learns about science, there are two sources of difficulty in trying to weld science and religion together. The first source of difficulty is this – that it is imperative in science to doubt; it is absolutely necessary, for progress in science, to have uncertainty as a fundamental part of your inner nature. To make progress in understanding we must remain modest and allow that we do not know. Nothing is certain or proved beyond all doubt. You investigate for curiosity, because it is unknown, not because you know the answer. And as you develop more information in the sciences, it is not that you are finding out the truth, but that you are finding out that this or that is more or less likely. That is, if we investigate further, we find that the statements of science are not of what is true and what is not true, but statements of what is known to different degrees of certainty: It is very much more likely that so and so is true than that it is not true; or such and such is almost certain but there is still a little bit of doubt; or – at the other extreme – well, we really dont know. Every one of the concepts of science is on a scale graduated somewhere between, but at neither end of, absolute falsity or absolute truth. It is necessary, I believe, to accept this idea, not only for science, but also for other things; it is of great value to acknowledge ignorance. It is a fact that when we make decisions in our life we dont necessarily know that we are making them correctly; we only think that we are doing the best we can – and that is what we should do. Attitude of uncertainty I think that when we know that we actually do live in uncertainty, then we ought to admit it; it is of great value to realize that we do not know the answers to different questions. This attitude of mind – this attitude of uncertainty – is vital to the scientist, and it is this attitude of mind which the student must first acquire. It becomes a habit of thought. Once acquired, one cannot retreat from it any more. What happens, then, is that the young man begins to doubt everything because he cannot have it as absolute truth. So the question changes a little bit from Is there a God? to How sure is it that there is a God? This very subtle change is a great stroke and represents a parting of the ways between science and religion. I do not believe a real scientist can ever believe in the same way again. Although there are scientists who believe in God, I do not believe that they think of God in the same way as religious people do. If they are consistent with their science, I think that they say something like this to themselves: I am almost certain there is a God. The doubt is very small. That is quite different from saying, I know that there is a God. I do not believe that a scientist can ever obtain that view – that really religious understanding, that real knowledge that there is a God – that absolute certainty which religious people have. Of course this process of doubt does not always start by attacking the question of the existence of God. Usually special tenets, such as the question of an afterlife, or details of the religious doctrine, such as details of Christs life, come under scrutiny first. It is more interesting, however, to go right into the central problem in a frank way, and to discuss the more extreme view which doubts the existence of God. Once the question has been removed from the absolute, and gets to sliding on the scale of uncertainty, it may end up in very different positions. In many cases it comes out very close to being certain. But on the other hand, for some, the net result of close scrutiny of the theory his father held of God may be the claim that it is almost certainly wrong. Belief in God – and the facts of science That brings us to the second difficulty our student has in trying to weld science and religion: Why does it often end up that the belief in God – at least, the God of the religious type – is considered to be very unreasonable, very unlikely? I think that the answer has to do with the scientific things – the facts or partial facts – that the man learns. For instance, the size of the universe is very impressive, with us on a tiny particle whirling around the sun, among a hundred thousand million suns in this galaxy, itself among a billion galaxies. Again, there is the close relation of biological man to the animals, and of one form of life to another. Man is a latecomer in a vast evolving drama; can the rest be but a scaffolding for his creation? Yet again, there are the atoms of which all appears to be constructed, following immutable laws. Nothing can escape it; the stars are made of the same stuff, and the animals are made of the same stuff, but in such complexity as to mysteriously appear alive – like man himself. It is a great adventure to contemplate the universe beyond man, to think of what it means without man – as it was for the great part of its long history, and as it is in the great majority of places. When this objective view is finally attained, and the mystery and majesty of matter are appreciated, to then turn the objective eye back on man viewed as matter, to see life as part of the universal mystery of greatest depth, is to sense an experience which is rarely described. It usually ends in laughter, delight in the futility of trying to understand. These scientific views end in awe and mystery, lost at the edge in uncertainty, but they appear to be so deep and so impressive that the theory that it is all arranged simply as a stage for God to watch mans struggle for good and evil seems to be inadequate. So let us suppose that this is the case of our particular student, and the conviction grows so that he believes that individual prayer, for example, is not heard. (I am not trying to disprove the reality of God; I am trying to give you some idea of – some sympathy for – the reasons why many come to think that prayer is meaningless. ) Of course, as a result of this doubt, the pattern of doubting is turned next to ethical problems, because, in the religion which he learned, moral problems were connected with the word of God, and if the God doesnt exist, what is his word? But rather surprisingly, I think, the moral problems ultimately come out relatively unscathed; at first perhaps the student may decide that a few little things were wrong, but he often reverses his opinion later, and ends with no fundamentally different moral view. There seems to be a kind of independence in these ideas. In the end, it is possible to doubt the divinity of Christ, and yet to believe firmly that it is a good thing to do unto your neighbor as you would have him do unto you. It is possible to have both these views at the same time; and I would say that I hope you will find that my atheistic scientific colleagues often carry themselves well in society. Communism and the scientific viewpoint I would like to remark, in passing, since the word atheism is so closely connected with communism, that the communist views are the antithesis of the scientific, in the sense that in communism the answers are given to all the questions – political questions as well as moral ones – without discussion and without doubt. The scientific viewpoint is the exact opposite of this; that is, all questions must be doubted and discussed; we must argue everything out – observe things, check them, and so change them. The democratic government is much closer to this idea, because there is discussion and a chance of modification. One doesnt launch the ship in a definite direction. It is true that if you have a tyranny of ideas, so that you know exactly what has to be true, you act very decisively, and it looks good – for a while. But soon the ship is heading in the wrong direction, and no one can modify the direction any more. So the uncertainties of life in a democracy are, I think, much more consistent with science. Although science makes some impact on many religious ideas, it does not affect the moral content. Religion has many aspects; it answers all kinds of questions. First, for example, it answers questions about what things are, where they come from, what man is, what God is – the properties of God, and so on. Let me call this the metaphysical aspect of religion. It also tells us another thing – how to behave. Leave out of this the idea of how to behave in certain ceremonies, and what rites to perform; I mean it tells us how to behave in life in general, in a moral way. It gives answers to moral questions; it gives a moral and ethical code. Let me call this the ethical aspect of religion. Now, we know that, even with moral values granted, human beings are very weak; they must be reminded of the moral values in order that they may be able to follow their consciences. It is not simply a matter of having a right conscience; it is also a question of maintaining strength to do what you know is right. And it is necessary that religion give strength and comfort and the inspiration to follow these moral views. This is the inspirational aspect of religion. It gives inspiration not only for moral conduct – it gives inspiration for the arts and for all kinds of great thoughts and actions as well. Interconnections These three aspects of religion are interconnected, and it is generally felt, in view of this close integration of ideas, that to attack one feature of the system is to attack the whole structure. The three aspects are connected more or less as follows: The moral aspect, the moral code, is the word of God – which involves us in a metaphysical question. Then the inspiration comes because one is working the will of God; one is for God; partly one feels that one is with God. And this is a great inspiration because it brings ones actions in contact with the universe at large. So these three things are very well interconnected. The difficulty is this: that science occasionally conflicts with the first of the three categories – the metaphysical aspect of religion. For instance, in the past there was an argument about whether the earth was the center of the universe – whether the earth moved around the sun or stayed still. The result of all this was a terrible strife and difficulty, but it was finally resolved – with religion retreating in this particular case. More recently there was a conflict over the question of whether man has animal ancestry. The result in many of these situations is a retreat of the religious metaphysical view, but nevertheless, there is no collapse of the religion. And further, there seems to be no appreciable or fundamental change in the moral view. After all, the earth moves around the sun – isnt it best to torn the other cheek? Does it make any difference whether the earth is standing still or moving around the son? We can expect conflict again. Science is developing and new things will be found out which will he in disagreement with the presentday metaphysical theory of certain religions. In fact, even with all the past retreats of religion, there is still real conflict for particular individuals when they learn about the science and they have heard about the religion. The thing has not been integrated very well; there are real conflicts here – and yet morals are not affected. As a matter of fact, the conflict is doubly difficult in this metaphysical region. Firstly, the facts may be in conflict, but even if the facts were not in conflict, the attitude is different. The spirit of uncertainty in science is an attitude toward the metaphysical questions that is quite different from the certainty and faith that is demanded in religion. There is definitely a conflict, I believe – both in fact and in spirit – over the metaphysical aspects of religion. In my opinion, it is not possible for religion to find a set of metaphysical ideas which will be guaranteed not to get into conflicts with an everadvancing and alwayschanging science which is going into an unknown. We dont know how to answer the questions; it is impossible to find an answer which someday will not be found to be wrong. The difficulty arises because science and religion are both trying to answer questions in the same realm here. Science and moral questions On the other hand, I dont believe that a real conflict with science will arise in the ethical aspect, because I believe that moral questions are outside of the scientific realm. Let me give three or four arguments to show why I believe this. In the first place, there have been conflicts in the past between the scientific and the religious view about the metaphysical aspect and, nevertheless, the older moral views did not collapse, did not change. Second, there are good men who practice Christian ethics and who do not believe in the divinity of Christ. They find themselves in no inconsistency here. Thirdly, although I believe that from time to time scientific evidence is found which may be partially interpreted as giving some evidence of some particular aspect of the life of Christ, for example, or of other religious metaphysical ideas, it seems to me that there is no scientific evidence bearing on the golden rule. It seems to me that that is somehow different. Now, lets see if I can make a little philosophical explanation as to why it is different – how science cannot affect the fundamental basis of morals. The typical human problem, and one whose answer religion aims to supply, is always of the following form: Should I do this? Should we do this? Should the government do this? To answer this question we can resolve it into two parts: First — If I do this, what will happen? – and second – Do I want that to happen? What would come of it of value – of good? Now a question of the form: If I do this, what will happen?is strictly scientific. As a matter of fact, science can be defined as a method for, and a body of information obtained by, trying to answer only questions which can be put into the form: If I do this, what will happen? The technique of it, fundamentally, is: Try it and see. Then you put together a large amount of information from such experiences. All scientists will agree that a question – any question, philosophical or other – which cannot be put into the form that can be tested by experiment (or, in simple terms, that cannot be put into the form: If I do this, what will happen?) is not a scientific question; it is outside the realm of science. I claim that whether you want something to happen or not – what value there is in the result, and how you judge the value of the result (which is the other end of the question: Should I do this? ) – must lie outside of science because it is not a question that you can answer only by knowing what happens; you still have to judge what happens – in a moral way. So, for this theoretical reason I think that there is a complete consistency between the moral view – or the ethical aspect of religion – and scientific information. Turning to the third aspect of religion – the inspirational aspect – brings me to the central question that I would like to present to this imaginary panel. The source of inspiration today – for strength and for comfort – in any religion is very closely knit with the metaphysical aspect; that is, the inspiration comes from working for God, for obeying his will, feeling one with God. Emotional ties to the moral code – based in this manner – begin to be severely weakened when doubt, even a small amount of doubt, is expressed as to the existence of God; so when the belief in God becomes uncertain, this particular method of obtaining inspiration fails. I dont know the answer to this central problem – the problem of maintaining the real value of religion, as a source of strength and of courage to most men, while, at the same time, not requiring an absolute faith in the metaphysical aspects. The heritages of Western civilization Western civilization, it seems to me, stands by two great heritages. One is the scientific spirit of adventure – the adventure into the unknown, an unknown which must be recognized as being unknown in order to be explored; the demand that the unanswerable mysteries of the universe remain unanswered; the attitude that all is uncertain; to summarize it – the humility of the intellect. The other great heritage is Christian ethics – the basis of action on love, the brotherhood of all men, the value of the individual – the humility of the spirit. These two heritages are logically, thoroughly consistent. But logic is not all; one needs ones heart to follow an idea. If people are going back to religion, what are they going back to? Is the modern church a place to give comfort to a man who doubts Godmore, one who disbelieves in God? Is the modern church a place to give comfort and encouragement to the value of such doubts? So far, have we not drawn strength and comfort to maintain the one or the other of these consistent heritages in a way which attacks the values of the other? Is this unavoidable? How can we draw inspiration to support these two pillars of western civilization so that they may stand together in full vigor, mutually unafraid? Is this not the central problem of our time? I put it up to the panel for discussion.

Euro Disney Essay Example for Free

Euro Disney Essay Despite a long story of success in the past, Euro Disney failed to anticipate demand accurately for their services. The company failed to recognize the frugality and price consciousness of the European customers which had a direct impact on the spending Patterns of the consumers. They assumed Europeans to follow the same pattern as the Americans however this was not the case hence it suffered huge losses. Cultural differences can lower the impact of a certain service and will lead to lower projected revenues. Euro Disney had visitors from all over Europe which spoke different languages, they shared different culture and history compared to American. It was important to integrate it into the theme park before hand. These differences adversely affected the company; alcohol wasn’t served in the park in a country where wine was a norm with food, inability to realize Europeans peak leisure days and serving them breakfast. A better analysis before hand and a president from the local environment initially would have been more familiar with the local environment would have led to increase in revenue. It was very important to be familiar with the mindset of the people while working with those belonging to different culture in order to maintain smooth working environment. The French unlike the Americans were sensitive and touchy people. To foster good will with them one has to incorporate them in one’s decisions and discussions and not just dominate them because this will infuriate them and alienate them and their support and cooperation. The French don’t like bossy attitude coming towards them hence one should be modest in dealing with them. The Tokyo Disney turned out to be a great success, way more than the expectations. The number of visitors was high with large revues and profits. Japanese were adaptable and flexible lot they welcomed American culture in the theme park from food to entertainment whereas the Europeans were reluctant to adopt the American style initially due to which Disney had to face many problems of cultural diversity in Euro Disney. Euro Disney was located at an ideal place as it was close to Paris, Paris being Europe’s largest tourist destination. The problem was not with the location but with other factors such as skimming pricing strategy for the price sensitive Europeans proved to be a failure, recession in the economy, failure to anticipate demand and cultural differences and apart from these operational inefficiencies and mismanagement. Location would not have made these factors better hence it would not have done better if located anywhere outside Paris too. Mickey Mouse is one of the greatest characters of Walt Disney and has a long history of success with the company. It is an icon of American culture; Mickey Mouse has always been one of the attractions at the Disney theme park. Unlike other American theme parks Euro Disney was criticized among the French for being too American and caused a clash, resentment and low turnover from them as they believed keeping French culture aside American culture was being imposed on them. Hence in order to counter the ethnocentric views Disney had to incorporate the French culture into the American Disney image for the liking of the Europeans. In order to make an impact on the Europeans, Disney was required to make a campaign that would have focused on French names and terminology, such as names of the rides and the restaurant menus, the French wanted their culture opposed to the American as it did not   tune in   with their own. Similarly the European Walt Disney studios should focus on French movies and people as a means of entertainment. It should be positioned as a theme park that as a perfect vacation resort and not the American resort in particular. This positioning can be done by engaging tourist guides, bus drivers and travel agents into the marketing campaign and providing them incentives to promote the promotional campaign of the company. Though Disney entered Europe with high hopes and confidence however it had to face losses due to the many mistakes it made in planning and launching the theme park. One such mistake was the price skimming strategy, Disney expected the demand for its park to be inelastic and hence it could have gained high revenues. However, raising admission prices would have added fuel to the situation because the turnover from the French people was already low, their low spending patterns, frugality, and economic recession would have discouraged people from visiting the park as prices were already considered to be very high and would have lead to further losses for Euro Disney. References Jiffy Notes. (n.d.). EURO DISNEY S.C.A. Retrieved May 21, 2010, from JiffyNotes.com: http://www.jiffynotes.com/a_study_guides/book_notes_add/emmc_0001_0001_0/emmc_0001_0001_0_00102.html

Analysis of Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

Analysis of Response Surface Methodology (RSM) 1.3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS 34, 35 Trans-Pacific Partnership economic framework agreement has clearly defined that many studies must be conducted to develop a formulation. Design of experiments (DOE) has proven to be an effective tool for formulation scientists throughout the many stages of the formulation process. At every step of formulation development, DOE can aid in making intelligent decisions. These steps include excipient compatibility studies, process feasibility studies, formulation optimization, process optimization, scale-up and manufacturing process characterization. Lastly, the product and manufacturing process must be validated before it is on the market. The word optimize is defined as, making as perfect, effective or functional as possible. Optimization may be interpreted as to find out the value of controllable independent variable, that gives the most desired value of dependent variables. The application of formulation optimization techniques is relatively new to the practice of pharmacy when used intelligently, with the common sense, these â€Å"statistical† methods will broaden the perspective of the formulation process. At the Preformulation stage, before any experiment is conducted certain problem arises, it is often not known before hand which variable will significantly influence the response. Screening designs and ANOVA helps to solve this problem. A second serious complication may arise with new excipients and new process factor, for which qualitative or quantitative effects are not known and are unpredictable. The following questions must be answered before choosing any design of experiment. The third complication is that formulated products, in particular dosage form has to confirm to several requirements, very often competing. The formulator has to trade off objectives and choose a compromise. A fourth problem is the lack of insight` to perform an adequate optimization studies. Above all in the performance of an optimization study, the formulation development scientist can also be a factor as personal variation. 1.3.1 Terms used in Design of experiments Variables These are the measurements, values, which are characteristics of the data. There are two types of variables; dependent variables and independent variables. Independent variables(X) are set in advance, which are not influenced by any other values e.g., Lubricants concentration, drug to polymer ratio, etc. Dependent variables(Y) are the outcome variables, influenced by the independent variables e.g., hardness, dissolution rate, etc. Factor Factor is an assigned variable such as concentration, temperature, lubricant agent, drug to polymer ratio, polymer to polymer ratio or polymer grade. A factor can be qualitative or quantitative. A quantitative factor has a numerical value to it for example, concentration (1%, 2%†¦ so on), drug to polymer ratio (1:1, 1:2†¦etc). Qualitative factors are the factors, which are not numerical value, for example, the polymer grade, humidity condition, type of equipment, etc. these are discrete in nature. Levels The levels of a factor are the values or designation assigned to the factor. For e.g. in concentration (factor) 1 % will be one level, while 2% will be another level. Two different plasticizers are levels for grade factor. Usually levels are indicated as low, middle or high level. Normally for ease of calculation the numeric and discrete levels are converted to –1 (low level) and +1 (high level).The general formula for this conversion is Where ‘X’ is the numeric value Response Response is mostly interpreted as the outcome of an experiment. It is the effect, which we are going to evaluate i.e. Disintegration time, duration of buoyancy, etc. Effect The effect of a factor is the change in response caused by varying the levels of the factor. This describes the relationship between various factors and levels. Interaction Interaction is also similar to effect, which gives the overall effect of two or more variables (factors) on a response. For example, the combined effect of lubricants (factor) and glidants (factor) on hardness (response) of a tablet. In the trial and error method, a lot of formulations have to be prepared to get a conclusion, which involves lots of money, time and energy. These can be minimized by the use of optimization technique. 1.3.2 Optimization Process Generally optimization process involves the following steps. Based on the previous knowledge or experience or from literature, the independent variables are determined and set in the beginning. Selection of a suitable model, based on the results of the factor, screening is done. The experiments are designed and conducted. The responses are analyzed by ANOVA, test on lack of fit, to get an empirical mathematical model for each individual response. The responses are screened, by using multiple criteria to get the values of independent variables. Experimental Design Experimental design is a statistical design that prescribes or advises a set of combination of variables. The number and layout of these design points within the experimental region, depends on the number of effects that must be estimated. Depending on the number of factors, their levels, possible interactions and order of the model, various experimental designs are chosen. Each experiment can be represented as a point within the experimental domain, the point being defined by its co-ordinate (the value given to the variables) in the space. 1.3.3 Response Surface Methodology Response surface methodology (RSM) is an experimental strategy that was developed in the 1950’s36. RSM is comprised of a group of mathematical and statistical techniques that are based on fitting experimental data generated from studies established using an experimental design, to empirical models and that are subsequently used to define a relationship between the responses observed and the independent input variables37, 38. RSM is able to define the effect of independent variables alone and in combination with the manufacturing processes under investigation. A typical RSM study begins initially with the definition of a problem to be investigated and involves establishing which variables and associated responses are to be studied, monitored, and measured and how these will be measured. A summary of the subsequent RSM approach includes36 Performance of the relevant DOE. Estimation of the coefficient in the relevant response surface equation. Checking of the adequacy of the equation to describe the fit. Studying the response surface to identify and evaluate the region(s) of interest. The term RSM originates from the graphical perspective generated after fitness of the mathematical model has been established 37, 38 with a graphical representation of the data presented primarily as a three-dimensional (3D) image and/or as contour plots39. The relationship between a response and an input variable can be described by Equation 1.1 y= f(x1, x2, x3†¦xn) +ÃŽ µ Where, y = relevant response f = unknown function of a response x1, x2,..xn = independent variables n= number of independent variables ÃŽ µ = statistical error that represents other sources of variability not accounted for by f Contour plot can be described as: i. Mound-shaped that has elliptical contours with a stationary point at the position of a maximum response. ii. Saddle-shaped that has a hyperbolic system of contours with a stationary point that is neither a maximum nor minimum point. iii. Constant (stationary) ridge response surface in which the contours are presented as concentric elongated ellipses with a stationary point in the region of the design region. iv. A rising (or falling) ridge response surface with a stationary point that is outside the design region 39. The stationary point is a combination of design variables where the surface presents as either a maximum and/or a minimum in all directions. If the stationary point is a maximum in one direction and minimum in another direction, the stationary point is termed a saddle point. When the surface is curved in one direction but is fairly constant and this is considered a ridge response 40. By plotting a response, y, against one or two input variables a surface, known as the response surface can be generated in two or three dimensions. In general the form of the function, f, is unknown and may be very complicated depending on the effect of the input variables on the response. Therefore RSM aims at approximating f by use of a suitable, ordered polynomial equation in some region(s) of the values for the independent process variables41. The mathematical or polynomial equations that describe the relationship(s) between the independent and dependent variables may be first, second or third order, depending on how the output variables or responses react to changes in the input variables. If the response is a linear function of the independent variables, then the function can be written as a first order model (Equation 1.2). In this model the response variables that fit a linear model are generally variables that are significantly affected by a small change in the value of the input factors and that exhibit little or no interaction(s) between the input variable terms. y= ÃŽ ²0+ ÃŽ ²1x1+ ÃŽ ²2x2+†¦..+ ÃŽ µ Second order equations are used to generate linear and quadratic response equations that exhibit interactions between the input factors and can be represented by Equation 1.3. y= ÃŽ ²0+ ÃŽ ²1x1+ ÃŽ ²2x2+ ÃŽ ²12x12+†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦+ ÃŽ µ It has been reported that second order models are also applicable to input factors that exhibit extensive variability over an experimental domain and these relationships are best described using Equation 1.4 y= ÃŽ ²0+ ÃŽ ²1x1+ ÃŽ ²2x2+ ÃŽ ²12x12+ ÃŽ ²11x12+ ÃŽ ²22x22+†¦..+ ÃŽ µ Where y= response x1, x2,..xn = input factors ÃŽ ²0= constant that represents the intercept ÃŽ ²i= coefficient of first order term ÃŽ ²ii= coefficient of second order term ÃŽ ²ij= coefficient of second order interaction The values of the coefficients in the model are generated through multiple linear regression analysis of the data that has been collected. A coefficient with a positive value points to an agonistic effect of the input factor on the response, whereas coefficients with negative values indicate an antagonistic effect. 1.3.4 Choice of Response Surface Design Central Composite Design (CCD) A CCD was originally presented by Box and Wilson and is based on a factorial design with additional points to estimate the curvature of that design. CCD encompasses a full factorial or fractional factorial approach which can be represented, as shown in Figure 1.1, as the eight corners of a cube. There are the six points, known as the axial or star points, located in the centre of each face of the cube with a final point located in the middle of the cube that is known as the centre point 37. The axial points are experimental runs where all but one of the factors to be investigated is set at the intermediate level under consideration. The axial points are all equidistant from the centre point and are denoted using the symbol, alpha (ÃŽ ±). The factors under consideration are usually investigated at five different levels and are always represented by coded values viz., -ÃŽ ±, -1, 0, +1 and +ÃŽ ±. Figure 1.1Schematic diagram representing the levels studied in a Central Composite Design The distance of the axial points from the centre point is dependent on the number of factors investigated in the design and is established using Equation 1.5. ÃŽ ± =2k/4 Where, k= the factor number ÃŽ ± = axial point The number of experiments required for a CCD approach is calculated using Equation 1.6 N= k2+ 2k+ C0 Where, N= the experiment number k= the factor number C0= the replicate number of the central point The number of experiments required in an experimental study is important as it determines how much data will be generated, in addition to being an indicator of the amount of time that will be required to conduct the study. Types of central composite design Central composite design can be divided into three types. Table 1.2 Types of central composite design Box-Behnken Design (BBD) The BBD describes a class of second-order designs based on a three-level incomplete factorial approach which are also represented as coded values viz., -1, 0 and +1 42 . In this design approach, the treatment combinations are located at the midpoint(s) of the edge of the process space and at the centre, as represented in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram representing the levels studied in a Box-Behnken Design The number of experiments for Box-Behnken Designs can be calculated using Equation 1.7. N= 2k (k-1) +C0 Where, N= the number of experiments k= the factor number C0= the replicate number of the central point For experiments in which there are three or less input variables the BBD design offers some advantage over the CCD approach, in that a fewer number of experimental runs are required. However this advantage does not exist when four or more parameters are to be investigated. A further advantage of BBD is that it does not include the need to evaluate situations in which all factors are simultaneously held at their highest and lowest levels. The use of a BBD therefore allows a formulation scientist to avoid undertaking experiments that are to performed under extreme conditions and that may produce substandard results due to the inclusion of data generated from these extreme high and low levels 37. Doehlert Design The Doehlert design is an experimental design approach in which different factors can be studied at different levels simultaneously43. This aspect of the Doehlert design is an important characteristic when using some input variables that may be subject to restrictions such as for example cost or experimental constraints (limited amounts of raw material or limited amount of time available) thereby making it a practical and economic alternative to other, second-order experimental design approaches37.This design describes a circular domain of two input variables, a spherical domain for three input variables and a hyper-spherical space for situations in which more than three input variables are to be investigated and which highlights the uniformity of the input variables to be studied in the experimental domain 37. The schematic design space of a Doehlert design for two variables is shown in Figure 1.3, and is represented by a central point and six points of a regular hexagon. An interesting feature of the Doehlert design is that new factors may be introduced during the course of a study without losing relevant and/or valuable information from the data already generated from the experimental runs that have already been completed. Figure 1.3 Schematic diagram representing the levels studied in a Doehlert Design The number of experiments required for a Doehlert design is determined using Equation 1.8 37 N= k2+ k+ C0 Where, N= the number of experiments k= the factor number C0= the replicate number of the central point 1.3.5 Mathematical Optimization Optimization is a mathematical method used to determine an optimum response and is defined as the most advantageous state of existence of the system under investigation44. Multiple linear regression equations generated from statistically designed experiments provide a description of the change of a response with a change in input factors and further, allows for the determination of input variables that will produce an optimized response. A difficulty that occurs in optimization procedures is the need to establish a compromise between the anticipated response variables. This challenge is often encountered in the process of optimization of tablets where the optimum tablet may be one that has superior strength and little or no friability, yet must also have a short disintegration time. Often an increase in tablet hardness results in an increase in the disintegration time of a tablet and therefore a compromise between these contradictory response variables is necessary to achieve an optimized formulation. 1.3.6 Advantages of RSM The primary advantage of RSM in relation to classical experimental methods and approaches of data evaluation in which only one variable is investigated at a time, is that a large amount of information can be generated from a relatively small number of experiments 38. RSM is therefore less time and cost consuming than the classical approach that requires a large number of experiments to be conducted to be able to explain the behavior of a system 38, 39. A further advantage, with the use of RSM is that it is possible to observe interaction effects of the independent input parameters on the response(s) being monitored 38. The model equation that is generated from the data is able to be used to explain the effect of combinations of independent input variables on the outcome of a process or product. 1.3.7 Disadvantages of RSM A primary disadvantage of RSM is that fitting data to a second order polynomial for systems that contain some curvature is often not well accommodated by the second order polynomials that are produced. If the system cannot be explained by a first or second order polynomial, it may be necessary to reduce the range of independent input variables under consideration as this may then increase the accuracy of the model being considered38. Another disadvantage is that although RSM has the potential to evaluate interaction effects of the independent input parameters, it is unable to be used to explain why an interaction(s) has occurred (210). A further disadvantage is that RSM is poor at predicting the potential outcomes for a system operated outside the range of study under consideration45 1.3.8 Software for Design of experiments Many commercial software packages are available which are either dedicated to experimental design alone or are of a more general statistical type. Software’s dedicated to experimental designs DESIGN EXPERT ECHIP MULTI-SIMPLEX NEMRODW Software for general statistical nature SAS MINITAB

Constitutional Convention Essay -- essays research papers

May 25, 1787   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fifty five delegates from twelve of the thirteen states met in Philadelphia today. Rhode Island is the only state of the thirteen that chose not to attend the revising of the Articles of Confederation. Though, after the delegates reviewed the articles, they agreed that they were not worth saving.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The delegates agreed to make a new document, a constitution, that would bring an entirely new type of government. Since they decided to create a new constitution, the meeting is to b e called the Constitutional Convention. The delegates of the Constitutional Convention were not ordinary American people. They were all professionals and businessmen, and they were all white men. More than half of the delegates are under 40. ...

Rememory in Toni Morrisons Beloved Essay -- Toni Morrison Beloved Ess

Rememory in Toni Morrison's Beloved To survive, one must depend on the acceptance and integration of what is past and what is present. In her novel Beloved, Toni Morrison carefully constructs events that parallel the way the human mind functions; this serves as a means by which the reader can understand the activity of memory. "Rememory" enables Sethe, the novel's protagonist, to reconstruct her past realities. The vividness that Sethe brings to every moment through recurring images characterizes her understanding of herself. Through rememory, Morrison is able to carry Sethe on a journey from being a woman who identifies herself only with motherhood, to a woman who begins to identify herself as a human being. Morrison glorifies the potential of language, and her faith in the power and construction of words instills trust in her readers that Sethe has claimed ownership of her freed self. The structure of Morrison's novel, which is arranged in trimesters, carries the reader on a mother's journey beginning with th e recognition of a haunting "new" presence, then gradually coming to terms with one's fears and reservations, and finally giving birth to a new identity while reclaiming one's own. Morrison characterizes the first trimester of Beloved as a time of unrest in order to create an unpleasant tone associated with any memories being stirred. Sethe struggles daily to block out her past. The first thing that she does when she gets to work is to knead bread: "Working dough. Working, working dough. Nothing better than that to the day's serious work of beating back the past" (Morrison 73). The internal and external scars which slavery has left on Sethe's soul are irreparable. Each time she relives a memory, she ... ...ge with Sethe. She not only searches for her face, but wants to be that face. In taking ownership of herself, Sethe unshackles herself from the ghosts of her past. Beloved has helped Sethe to free herself, and now can finally depart. Beloved takes Sethe's complex past and from it lifts one of life's simple truths: only you can define yourself. Sethe is finally free and at peace. From spiteful to loud to quiet, 124 Bluestone Road has evolved just as the characters have. All have remembered. Redemption comes because the past has been reconciled. Forgetting comes only with the pain of remembering, and in a world of rememories, we are bound to bump in to one of our own. Morrison gives birth to a story and in doing so claims ownership for herself, which is something only she could do. Works Cited Morrison, Toni. Beloved. New York: Plume, 1987.